HOW ALABAMA'S PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHER COMPENSATION COMPARES
Teacher compensation is the largest and most important component of public school expenditures. Like other southeastern states, Alabama in the past has paid teacher salaries that were well below the national average. This low-salary policy began to change in recent years, however, with teachers receiving substantial raises in 1994-95 (8.5%), 1996-97 (4%), and 1998-99 (8.5%). Since 1994, the average teacher salary in Alabama has risen by more than $7,000, or 25 percent, climbing from 41st to 29th in the state rankings compiled by the National Education Association (NEA). Consideration is now being given to a policy of paying Alabamas teachers at the national average salary. This report looks at how public school teacher compensation in Alabama compares with other states.
The State Salary Matrix and Local Salary Schedules
Public school teachers in Alabama are paid according to local salary schedules that provide increasing compensation for additional levels of education and years of service. The Legislature created a state salary matrix in 1995 and updates it each year in the education appropriations act. The state salary matrix for Fiscal 1999-2000 is shown in Table 1, below. Each local school system is required by law to adopt a salary schedule that provides at least 100 percent of the applicable amounts from the statewide salary matrix. As the table shows, the state salary matrix is based on a standard state contract length of 182 days, which includes 175 days of school and 7 days of teacher preparation and professional development time.
TABLE 1. Alabama State Teacher Salary Matrix, Fiscal 1999-2000 |
|||||
Years |
|||||
of |
Bachelor's |
Master's |
6-Year |
Doctoral |
Non- |
Experience |
Degree |
Degree |
Degree |
Degree |
Degree |
0-2 |
$ 28,394 |
$ 32,652 |
$ 35,208 |
$ 37,764 |
$ 28,394 |
3-5 |
31,233 |
35,917 |
38,728 |
41,539 |
31,233 |
6-8 |
31,659 |
36,408 |
39,257 |
42,106 |
31,659 |
9-11 |
32,084 |
36,897 |
39,785 |
42,672 |
32,084 |
12-14 |
32,510 |
37,386 |
40,313 |
43,239 |
32,510 |
15-17 |
32,937 |
37,877 |
40,841 |
43,805 |
32,937 |
18-20 |
33,362 |
38,366 |
41,369 |
44,372 |
33,362 |
21 + |
33,788 |
38,857 |
41,897 |
44,938 |
33,788 |
Contract Days |
182 |
182 |
182 |
182 |
182 |
The state foundation program provides funding for teacher units based on the state salary matrix. Some school systems pay more than the minimum, particularly for experienced and highly educated teachers. These systems are required to use their own local tax dollars to pay the amounts that exceed the state salary matrix. Table 2, below, compares the state salary matrix with salary schedules in two school systems, for teachers with a master's degree. The Greene County System pays at the state salary matrix level and employs teachers on a 182-day contract. The Homewood City System, on the other hand, pays substantially more for experienced teachers with master's degrees, and it employs teachers for 187 days.
Homewood teachers with master's degrees and twelve years' experience earn over $4,000, or eleven percent, more than their counterparts in Greene County; by the time they have accumulated 21 years of experience, they earn about $5,600 (fifteen percent) more. But teachers in Homewood also work five more days than their counterparts in Greene County. The right side of Table 2 shows a comparison based on daily rates of pay. By this measure, the salary of a Homewood teacher is twelve percent higher than that of a Greene County teacher (and the state salary matrix) at 21 years of experience.
TABLE 2. Master's Degree Salary Comparisons |
||||||||
Annual Salary |
Daily Rate of Pay |
|||||||
Years |
State |
Greene |
Homewood |
State |
Greene |
Homewood |
||
of |
Salary |
County |
City |
Salary |
County |
City |
||
Experience |
Matrix |
System |
System |
Matrix |
System |
System |
||
0 |
$ 32,652 |
$ 32,652 |
$ 33,560 |
$ 179 |
$ 179 |
$ 179 |
||
3 |
35,917 |
35,917 |
36,850 |
197 |
197 |
197 |
||
6 |
36,408 |
36,408 |
37,947 |
200 |
200 |
203 |
||
9 |
36,897 |
36,897 |
39,592 |
203 |
203 |
212 |
||
12 |
37,386 |
37,386 |
41,566 |
205 |
205 |
222 |
||
15 |
37,877 |
37,877 |
43,211 |
208 |
208 |
231 |
||
18 |
38,366 |
38,366 |
43,211 |
211 |
211 |
231 |
||
21 |
38,857 |
38,857 |
44,527 |
214 |
214 |
238 |
||
Contract Days |
182 |
182 |
187 |
--- |
--- |
--- |
||
Local school systems that pay more than the minimum are required to maintain the differential between their salary schedule and the state salary matrix whenever statewide pay raises are granted; that is, they must provide the entire percentage increase to all teachers. Or, to put it another way: once a school system begins to pay above the state-mandated minimum level in any of the cells of its salary schedule, then the level at which it pays (rather than the state salary matrix) becomes the base figure for that system.
Furthermore, if the local system hires teachers for more than 182 contract days, these state mandates apply to the daily rate of pay. Thus, since the Homewood City System hires teachers for 187 days, its minimum beginning salary for a teacher with a master's degree must be at least $33,549 ($32,652 X 187 / 182 = $33,549). As Table 2 shows, Homewood and Greene County pay the same $179-per-day starting salary for teachers with master's degrees, even though the Homewood teachers annual salary is about $900 higher. In effect, the state salary matrix is implemented on a daily rate of pay rather than in terms of annual compensation.
Benchmarks for Teacher Compensation Comparisons
The recent report of the Alabama Task Force on Teaching and Student Achievement declared that:
"A well-prepared teacher is the critical ingredient in student learning Each
dollar spent on improving teacher qualifications nets greater gains in student learning than any other use of an education dollar."
Adequate teacher compensation is a fundamental ingredient in improving teaching and learning. Teaching is a profession that requires great knowledge and skill. Teacher compensation should attract those with the potential to teach well and reward those who develop the attributes necessary for increasing student learning. Therefore, it is important to look at the following factors:
In looking at the attractiveness of salaries, it is important to consider not only gross compensation, but also such factors as the employee's cost of fringe benefit programs, the cost of living in the community, and the general level of income in the community. On the following pages, we have looked at each of these perspectives in order to provide the kind of complete description that policy makers should have in setting teacher compensation.
We also have looked at the average teacher salary, which is a composite figure that substitutes for lack of detailed salary progression data. Teachers are compensated on the basis of salary schedules that provide additional pay for increases in experience and educational attainment. The average salary is affected not only by the salary schedules involved, but also by the average experience and educational levels of teachers. This can distort the real differences in compensation. If Alabamas school systems used salary schedules equivalent to those in other states but employed younger teachers, or a lower percentage of teachers with masters degrees, the states average teacher salary would be lower simply because of these teacher characteristics. On the other hand, if Alabama's teachers were more experienced, or more highly educated, its average salary would be higher for that reason alone. These kinds of differences do exist, as indicated by the following specific examples:
Teachers in Alaska are not paid less today than they were in 1997, for any given level of education and experience; but the average, based in all likelihood on falling levels of experience and education, suggests that they are. In the same way, a salary-increase plan that will stretch over several years creates an incentive for teachers to delay retirement in order to increase final average compensation. This kind of behavior would increase the average teacher salary artificially for a few years, and then reduce it when those who delayed retirement decided to step down.
Nevertheless, average salary data are readily available, and they have become an important indicator of relative compensation because of the lack of detailed information on salary progression. Since the available data do not compare what teachers with specific educational credentials are paid at benchmark points in their careers, the less-specific average figure is used as a substitute. The examples cited above suggest that caution is warranted in using the average salary as a benchmark figure. In its annual teacher salary study, the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) produces a table that adjusts state average teacher salaries based on the beginning teacher salary and average teacher experience. Unfortunately, the average experience data (which come from an NCES survey) are not collected every year. Average teacher salary comparisons would be more meaningful if they were published along with annual data on beginning teacher salaries, average education levels, and average experience levels of teachers.
Finally, it is important to consider the professional conditions under which teachers must practice. These include the teacher-student ratio, the length of the school year, and the investment in professional development programs, technology, and other forms of instructional support. These factors are a form of "compensation" for the teaching professional because they contribute to the success of the teaching mission. How Alabama compares in these areas is important to the success of our teacher compensation plan. These factors are addressed in the final section of the report.
Salaries for Beginning Teachers
Beginning teachers in Alabama are well compensated in comparison with their peers in other states. AFT data for fiscal year 1997-98, which are the most recent available, are shown in Table 3. The national average beginning teacher salary in that year was $25,735. Alabama's average, $27,388, was six percent and $1,653 higher than the national average, ranking ninth among all states. It also was the highest in the southeast, exceeding the Georgia average by $682. Every other southeastern state was below the national average.
The Alabama figure is even farther above the average beginning teacher salary paid by the average state. The national average shown in Table 3 represents the salary paid to the average teacher. This average is affected by the fact that the more populous states have more teachers and tend to pay higher salaries. This is why the national average is relatively high in the distribution shown in the table. The simple average of all states beginning teacher salaries for 1997-98 was $24,733, which represents the amount paid by the average state. Alabamas average beginning salary was ten percent and $2,655 higher than that figure.
TABLE 3. Beginning Teacher Salary, 1997-98 |
||||
| State |
Average Beginning Salary 1997-98 |
Amount Above or Below U.S. Average |
Percent of National Average |
Rank |
Alaska |
$ 33,162 |
$ 7,427 |
129% |
1 |
New York |
30,204 |
4,469 |
117% |
2 |
Pennsylvania |
29,581 |
3,846 |
115% |
3 |
Connecticut |
29,506 |
3,771 |
115% |
4 |
Nevada |
28,641 |
2,906 |
111% |
5 |
New Jersey |
28,319 |
2,584 |
110% |
6 |
Illinois |
28,183 |
2,448 |
110% |
7 |
California |
27,852 |
2,117 |
108% |
8 |
Alabama |
27,388 |
1,653 |
106% |
9 |
Massachusetts |
27,238 |
1,503 |
106% |
10 |
District of Columbia |
27,234 |
1,499 |
106% |
11 |
Michigan |
27,064 |
1,329 |
105% |
12 |
Maryland |
27,010 |
1,275 |
105% |
13 |
Hawaii |
26,744 |
1,009 |
104% |
14 |
Georgia |
26,706 |
971 |
104% |
15 |
Rhode Island |
26,300 |
565 |
102% |
16 |
Minnesota |
26,266 |
531 |
102% |
17 |
Oregon |
26,098 |
363 |
101% |
18 |
U.S. Average |
25,735 |
- |
100% |
--- |
Delaware |
25,493 |
(242) |
99% |
19 |
Virginia |
25,272 |
(463) |
98% |
20 |
Florida |
25,266 |
(469) |
98% |
21 |
Vermont |
25,183 |
(552) |
98% |
22 |
Arizona |
24,917 |
(818) |
97% |
23 |
Colorado |
24,867 |
(868) |
97% |
24 |
Texas |
24,736 |
(999) |
96% |
25 |
Indiana |
24,716 |
(1,019) |
96% |
26 |
Missouri |
24,125 |
(1,610) |
94% |
27 |
Wisconsin |
24,077 |
(1,658) |
94% |
28 |
New Hampshire |
23,927 |
(1,808) |
93% |
29 |
Washington |
23,860 |
(1,875) |
93% |
30 |
Oklahoma |
23,676 |
(2,059) |
92% |
31 |
Kentucky |
23,536 |
(2,199) |
91% |
32 |
South Carolina |
23,427 |
(2,308) |
91% |
33 |
New Mexico |
23,297 |
(2,438) |
91% |
34 |
Louisiana |
22,843 |
(2,892) |
89% |
35 |
Ohio |
22,535 |
(3,200) |
88% |
36 |
West Virginia |
22,529 |
(3,206) |
88% |
37 |
Iowa |
22,475 |
(3,260) |
87% |
38 |
Kansas |
22,445 |
(3,290) |
87% |
39 |
Utah |
22,241 |
(3,494) |
86% |
40 |
Wyoming |
22,230 |
(3,505) |
86% |
41 |
North Carolina |
22,150 |
(3,585) |
86% |
42 |
Tennessee |
22,140 |
(3,595) |
86% |
43 |
Nebraska |
21,949 |
(3,786) |
85% |
44 |
Maine |
21,554 |
(4,181) |
84% |
45 |
Montana |
21,045 |
(4,690) |
82% |
46 |
Arkansas |
21,000 |
(4,735) |
82% |
47 |
Mississippi |
20,630 |
(5,105) |
80% |
48 |
South Dakota |
20,340 |
(5,395) |
79% |
49 |
Idaho |
20,246 |
(5,489) |
79% |
50 |
North Dakota |
19,146 |
(6,589) |
74% |
51 |
Source: American Federation of Teachers,"Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends, 1998" |
||||
Salary Progression
Alabamas beginning teacher salaries are very attractive in comparison with those paid in other states. How well is this attractiveness maintained throughout a teaching career?
Teacher turnover is one measure of attractiveness. Table 4, below, shows the number and percent of Alabama teacher units in each cell of the state salary matrix. These teacher units include professional personnel who are teachers, counselors, librarians, principals, and assistant principals in the public schools.
The rows of the table show teacher experience levels in the three-year increments of the salary schedule. The two points in the salary matrix where the number of teachers drops noticeably are at the third level (6-8 years of experience) and the fifth level (12-14 years). This suggests that Alabama begins to lose large numbers of teachers after about six years, and then again after about twelve years of experience.
The columns of the table show the educational levels of teacher units. At the lowest experience level, 24 percent of teachers have advanced degrees, and the percentage rises with experience. At the third level of the salary matrix (6-8 years), when it appears that large numbers of teachers begin to drop out, the percent of teachers with advanced degrees is more than twice as high as at the first level (54 versus 24 percent).
This suggests that most of those who leave have not progressed beyond the bachelors degree and that those who begin to work on advanced degrees at the outset of their careers are more likely to stay in the teaching profession. It also suggests that a key attraction of the states salary schedule is the fifteen percent increase it provides those who improve their professional capabilities by obtaining a masters degree. This attractive feature can be bolstered by additional rewards based on specific achievements, such as the $5,000 salary increase and $5,000 grant for classroom materials that Alabama now offers teachers who achieve certification from the National Board for Professional Teacher Standards.
TABLE 4. Number and Percent of Alabama Teacher Units by Experience and Degree, 1999-2000 |
|||||||
Pct. With Advanced Degree |
|||||||
Experience in Years |
Bachelor's |
Master's |
6-Year |
Doctoral |
Non-Degree |
Total |
|
Number of Teacher Units (Full-Time-Equivalent), 1999-2000 |
|||||||
0,1,2 |
5,335 |
1,624 |
34 |
21 |
116 |
7,131 |
24% |
3,4,5 |
4,370 |
2,566 |
63 |
13 |
50 |
7,062 |
37% |
6,7,8 |
2,619 |
3,005 |
131 |
17 |
40 |
5,811 |
54% |
9,10,11 |
1,942 |
3,086 |
243 |
23 |
20 |
5,314 |
63% |
12,13,14 |
1,362 |
2,426 |
235 |
36 |
12 |
4,071 |
66% |
15,16,17 |
1,081 |
2,427 |
301 |
40 |
14 |
3,862 |
72% |
18,19,20 |
1,266 |
2,865 |
403 |
53 |
6 |
4,593 |
72% |
21+ |
3,026 |
9,387 |
2,414 |
284 |
12 |
15,123 |
80% |
Totals |
21,001 |
27,385 |
3,824 |
487 |
270 |
52,967 |
|
Experience in Years |
Bachelor's |
Master's |
6-Year |
Doctoral |
Non-Degree |
Total |
|
Percent of Teacher Units, 1999-2000 |
|||||||
0,1,2 |
10.07% |
3.07% |
0.06% |
0.04% |
0.22% |
13.46% |
|
3,4,5 |
8.25% |
4.84% |
0.12% |
0.02% |
0.09% |
13.33% |
|
6,7,8 |
4.94% |
5.67% |
0.25% |
0.03% |
0.08% |
10.97% |
|
9,10,11 |
3.67% |
5.83% |
0.46% |
0.04% |
0.04% |
10.03% |
|
12,13,14 |
2.57% |
4.58% |
0.44% |
0.07% |
0.02% |
7.69% |
|
15,16,17 |
2.04% |
4.58% |
0.57% |
0.08% |
0.03% |
7.29% |
|
18,19,20 |
2.39% |
5.41% |
0.76% |
0.10% |
0.01% |
8.67% |
|
21+ |
5.71% |
17.72% |
4.56% |
0.54% |
0.02% |
28.55% |
|
Totals |
39.65% |
51.70% |
7.22% |
0.92% |
0.51% |
100.00% |
|
Source: Alabama State Department of Education; PARCA calculations. |
|||||||
To compare salary progression for teachers in the various states, we must have data from teacher salary schedules. According to the Education Commission of the States, 23 states have statewide teacher salary schedules. Normally the statewide salary schedule creates a minimum that local school systems are permitted to supplement. While some of these statewide schedules, like Alabama's, provide a meaningful basis for describing teacher salaries in the state, in other cases salary schedules are so low and supplemented so much by local school systems that any comparisons based on the schedule alone would not be valid.
There are no comparative data that would describe salary progression accurately in states that do not have meaningful statewide salary schedules. For this reason, most teacher salary comparisons rely on average teacher salaries, despite the fact that this gives an incomplete picture of salary progression throughout a teaching career.
Generally, the meaningful state salary schedules are found in southeastern states, where the state share of school funding is high. To provide a sense of how teacher salary progression in Alabama compares, we have analyzed statewide salary schedules for Alabama and four neighboring states that have meaningful state salary schedules. The results are shown in Table 5, at the top of the next page.
We have assumed that a teacher begins in each state with a bachelor's degree, obtains a master's degree at the end of the tenth year of service, and then obtains a 6-year (educational specialist) degree at the end of the twentieth year of service. The resulting salaries over a 30-year career -- calculated on both an annual and a daily basis -- are shown in the table. At the bottom, we have shown the 30-year average salary for each state. We also have shown the present value of the 30 years of income to a beginning teacher. This figure takes into account the time-value of the money a prospective teacher will earn in each of the states compared. Among the significant findings from this analysis are the following:
than a colleague in Georgia but more than colleagues in all of the other states. This figure reflects more accurately than does an average salary the value that a prospective teacher might put on a career in each of the five states. In other words, there is value in the fact that Alabama pays well at the start of a teaching career.
TABLE 5. Comparison of Current Teacher Salary Schedules for Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, and South Carolina |
|||||||||||||||||
Annual Salary in State Salary Schedules |
Daily Salary in State Salary Schedules |
||||||||||||||||
Year of Service |
Academic Degree |
Alabama |
Georgia |
Mississippi |
North Carolina |
South Carolina |
Alabama |
Georgia |
Mississippi |
N. Car. |
S. Car. |
||||||
(182 Days) |
(190 Days) |
(185 Days) |
(200 Days) |
(190 Days) |
|||||||||||||
1 |
Bachelor's |
$ 28,394 |
$ 26,328 |
$ 23,040 |
$ 24,050 |
$ 23,312 |
$ 156 |
$ 139 |
$ 125 |
$ 120 |
$ 123 |
||||||
2 |
Bachelor's |
28,394 |
26,328 |
23,475 |
24,470 |
23,824 |
156 |
139 |
127 |
122 |
125 |
||||||
3 |
Bachelor's |
28,394 |
26,328 |
23,910 |
24,900 |
24,478 |
156 |
139 |
129 |
125 |
129 |
||||||
4 |
Bachelor's |
31,233 |
27,118 |
24,345 |
26,680 |
25,106 |
172 |
143 |
132 |
133 |
132 |
||||||
5 |
Bachelor's |
31,233 |
27,932 |
24,780 |
28,240 |
25,760 |
172 |
147 |
134 |
141 |
136 |
||||||
6 |
Bachelor's |
31,233 |
28,770 |
25,215 |
29,510 |
26,388 |
172 |
151 |
136 |
148 |
139 |
||||||
7 |
Bachelor's |
31,659 |
29,921 |
25,650 |
30,520 |
27,041 |
174 |
157 |
139 |
153 |
142 |
||||||
8 |
Bachelor's |
31,659 |
30,819 |
26,085 |
30,990 |
27,670 |
174 |
162 |
141 |
155 |
146 |
||||||
9 |
Bachelor's |
31,659 |
32,206 |
26,520 |
31,470 |
28,324 |
174 |
170 |
143 |
157 |
149 |
||||||
10 |
Bachelor's |
32,084 |
33,172 |
26,955 |
31,960 |
28,953 |
176 |
175 |
146 |
160 |
152 |
||||||
11 |
Master's |
36,897 |
38,146 |
29,390 |
34,825 |
33,685 |
203 |
201 |
159 |
174 |
177 |
||||||
12 |
Master's |
36,897 |
39,290 |
29,920 |
35,350 |
34,384 |
203 |
207 |
162 |
177 |
181 |
||||||
13 |
Master's |
37,386 |
39,290 |
30,450 |
35,885 |
35,084 |
205 |
207 |
165 |
179 |
185 |
||||||
14 |
Master's |
37,386 |
40,469 |
30,980 |
36,441 |
35,784 |
205 |
213 |
167 |
182 |
188 |
||||||
15 |
Master's |
37,386 |
40,469 |
31,510 |
37,017 |
36,483 |
205 |
213 |
170 |
185 |
192 |
||||||
16 |
Master's |
37,877 |
41,683 |
32,040 |
37,778 |
37,182 |
208 |
219 |
173 |
189 |
196 |
||||||
17 |
Master's |
37,877 |
41,683 |
32,570 |
38,367 |
37,881 |
208 |
219 |
176 |
192 |
199 |
||||||
18 |
Master's |
37,877 |
42,933 |
33,100 |
38,976 |
38,581 |
208 |
226 |
179 |
195 |
203 |
||||||
19 |
Master's |
38,366 |
42,933 |
33,630 |
39,585 |
38,966 |
211 |
226 |
182 |
198 |
205 |
||||||
20 |
Master's |
38,366 |
44,221 |
34,160 |
40,214 |
39,357 |
211 |
233 |
185 |
201 |
207 |
||||||
21 |
6-Year |
41,369 |
49,969 |
36,840 |
42,351 |
42,152 |
227 |
263 |
199 |
212 |
222 |
||||||
22 |
6-Year |
41,897 |
49,969 |
37,435 |
43,013 |
42,152 |
230 |
263 |
202 |
215 |
222 |
||||||
23 |
6-Year |
41,897 |
49,969 |
38,030 |
43,697 |
42,152 |
230 |
263 |
206 |
218 |
222 |
||||||
24 |
6-Year |
41,897 |
49,969 |
38,625 |
44,380 |
42,152 |
230 |
263 |
209 |
222 |
222 |
||||||
25 |
6-Year |
41,897 |
49,969 |
39,220 |
45,073 |
42,152 |
230 |
263 |
212 |
225 |
222 |
||||||
26 |
6-Year |
41,897 |
49,969 |
40,815 |
46,900 |
42,152 |
230 |
263 |
221 |
234 |
222 |
||||||
27 |
6-Year |
41,897 |
49,969 |
40,815 |
47,642 |
42,152 |
230 |
263 |
221 |
238 |
222 |
||||||
28 |
6-Year |
41,897 |
49,969 |
40,815 |
48,405 |
42,152 |
230 |
263 |
221 |
242 |
222 |
||||||
29 |
6-Year |
41,897 |
49,969 |
40,815 |
49,178 |
42,152 |
230 |
263 |
221 |
246 |
222 |
||||||
30 |
6-Year |
41,897 |
49,969 |
40,815 |
49,971 |
42,152 |
230 |
263 |
221 |
250 |
222 |
||||||
| 30-Year Avg. Salary |
$ 36,690 |
$ 39,991 |
$ 32,065 |
$ 37,261 |
$ 34,992 |
$ 202 |
$ 210 |
$ 173 |
$ 186 |
$ 184 |
|||||||
| Present Value, Yr. 1 |
$ 607,717 |
$641,366 |
$ 520,117 |
$ 600,304 |
$566,103 |
||||||||||||
Source: Teacher Salary Schedules of the various states; PARCA calculations |
|||||||||||||||||
As discussed below, Georgia is pursuing a policy of raising teacher salaries to the national average, and its average teacher salary in 1998-99 was very close to that goal. North Carolina is pursuing the same goal, although it currently trails Georgia in terms of average pay. South Carolina targets the southeastern average and pays above it. Comparisons with the teacher salary schedules in these neighboring states are a good way to document improvements in Alabamas teacher compensation as we go forward.
Average Teacher Salary
The most recent data on average teacher salaries come from the NEA and are shown in the two parts of Table 6. The data show that Alabamas average teacher salary of $35,820 in 1998-99 ranked 29th among all states and the District of Columbia, and third among the ten southeastern states. The rankings are identical in each part of the table; only the averages vary. The table is divided into two parts because there are two ways to calculate a national average figure for comparison purposes.
Table 6A, on the left, shows a "U.S. Average" teacher salary of $40,462. There were 2,778,499 teachers in American public schools in 1998-99, and $40,462 is the salary paid to the average one among them. To derive this figure, the average salary for each state is multiplied by the number of teachers in that state, and the sum of these multiplications is divided by 2,778,499. This figure is influenced by the more populous states, which tend to have more teachers and to pay higher salaries. Table 6A shows the number of teachers in each state. Alabama's average teacher salary was $4,642, which was 89 percent of the salary paid to the average teacher in the U.S. It was $627 more than the average salary paid to a teacher in the southeast. Georgia, the highest-ranking southeastern state, had an average teacher salary only two percent lower than the U.S. average.
Table 6B, on the right, shows the average teacher salary paid by the average state. This figure treats each state equally and is calculated by adding the average teacher salary for all states plus the District of Columbia, and dividing the total by 51. The average
TABLE 6A. Salary Paid to the Average Teacher, 1998-99 |
TABLE 6B. Salary Paid by the Average State, 1998-99 |
||||||||||
Number |
Average |
Difference |
Percent of |
Average |
Difference |
Percent of |
|||||
of |
Teacher's |
Between |
Average |
Teacher's |
Between |
Salary Paid |
|||||
Teachers |
Salary |
State and |
Teacher's |
Salary |
State and |
by Average |
|||||
State |
1998-99 |
1998-99 |
U.S. Average |
Salary |
Rank |
State |
1998-99 |
Average State |
State |
Rank |
|
Connecticut |
39,311 |
$51,424 |
$10,962 |
127% |
1 |
Connecticut |
$51,424 |
$13,024 |
134% |
1 |
|
New Jersey |
93,090 |
51,193 |
10,731 |
127% |
2 |
New Jersey |
51,193 |
12,793 |
133% |
2 |
|
New York |
201,168 |
49,437 |
8,975 |
122% |
3 |
New York |
49,437 |
11,037 |
129% |
3 |
|
Pennsylvania |
108,350 |
48,297 |
7,835 |
119% |
4 |
Pennsylvania |
48,297 |
9,897 |
126% |
4 |
|
Michigan |
91,233 |
48,207 |
7,745 |
119% |
5 |
Michigan |
48,207 |
9,807 |
126% |
5 |
|
District of Columbia |
5,462 |
47,150 |
6,688 |
117% |
6 |
District of Columbia |
47,150 |
8,750 |
123% |
6 |
|
Alaska |
7,696 |
46,845 |
6,383 |
116% |
7 |
Alaska |
46,845 |
8,445 |
122% |
7 |
|
Rhode Island |
11,395 |
45,650 |
5,188 |
113% |
8 |
Rhode Island |
45,650 |
7,250 |
119% |
8 |
|
Illinois |
122,122 |
45,569 |
5,107 |
113% |
9 |
Illinois |
45,569 |
7,169 |
119% |
9 |
|
California |
260,539 |
45,400 |
4,938 |
112% |
10 |
California |
45,400 |
7,000 |
118% |
10 |
|
Massachusetts |
64,985 |
45,075 |
4,613 |
111% |
11 |
Massachusetts |
45,075 |
6,675 |
117% |
11 |
|
Oregon |
27,800 |
43,250 |
2,788 |
107% |
12 |
Oregon |
43,250 |
4,850 |
113% |
12 |
|
Delaware |
7,073 |
43,164 |
2,702 |
107% |
13 |
Delaware |
43,164 |
4,764 |
112% |
13 |
|
Maryland |
49,490 |
42,624 |
2,162 |
105% |
14 |
Maryland |
42,624 |
4,224 |
111% |
14 |
|
Wisconsin |
55,024 |
40,775 |
313 |
101% |
15 |
Wisconsin |
40,775 |
2,375 |
106% |
15 |
|
Indiana |
57,538 |
40,650 |
188 |
100% |
16 |
Indiana |
40,650 |
2,250 |
106% |
16 |
|
Ohio |
108,631 |
40,508 |
46 |
100% |
17 |
Ohio |
40,508 |
2,108 |
105% |
17 |
|
U.S. Average |
2,778,499 |
40,462 |
--- |
100% |
--- |
Hawaii |
40,377 |
1,977 |
105% |
18 |
|
Hawaii |
11,019 |
40,377 |
(85) |
100% |
18 |
Minnesota |
39,975 |
1,575 |
104% |
19 |
|
Minnesota |
51,888 |
39,975 |
(487) |
99% |
19 |
Georgia |
39,675 |
1,275 |
103% |
20 |
|
Georgia |
88,654 |
39,675 |
(787) |
98% |
20 |
Nevada |
38,867 |
467 |
101% |
21 |
|
Nevada |
16,677 |
38,867 |
(1,595) |
96% |
21 |
Washington |
38,862 |
462 |
101% |
22 |
|
Washington |
50,057 |
38,862 |
(1,600) |
96% |
22 |
Average State |
38,400 |
--- |
100% |
--- |
|
Colorado |
38,089 |
38,025 |
(2,437) |
94% |
23 |
Colorado |
38,025 |
(375) |
99% |
23 |
|
Kansas |
31,899 |
37,731 |
(2,731) |
93% |
24 |
Kansas |
37,731 |
(669) |
98% |
24 |
|
Virginia |
79,803 |
37,475 |
(2,987) |
93% |
25 |
Virginia |
37,475 |
(925) |
98% |
25 |
|
New Hampshire |
13,195 |
37,325 |
(3,137) |
92% |
26 |
New Hampshire |
37,325 |
(1,075) |
97% |
26 |
|
Vermont |
8,084 |
36,800 |
(3,662) |
91% |
27 |
Vermont |
36,800 |
(1,600) |
96% |
27 |
|
Tennessee |
53,593 |
36,500 |
(3,962) |
90% |
28 |
Tennessee |
36,500 |
(1,900) |
95% |
28 |
|
Alabama |
46,177 |
35,820 |
(4,642) |
89% |
29 |
Alabama |
35,820 |
(2,580) |
93% |
29 |
|
Florida |
129,731 |
35,749 |
(4,713) |
88% |
30 |
Florida |
35,749 |
(2,651) |
93% |
30 |
|
Kentucky |
38,007 |
35,300 |
(5,162) |
87% |
31 |
Kentucky |
35,300 |
(3,100) |
92% |
31 |
|
Southeastern Average |
544,602 |
35,193 |
(5,269) |
87% |
--- |
Maine |
35,050 |
(3,350) |
91% |
32 |
|
Maine |
14,776 |
35,050 |
(5,412) |
87% |
32 |
Texas |
35,041 |
(3,359) |
91% |
33 |
|
Texas |
261,275 |
35,041 |
(5,421) |
87% |
33 |
Arizona |
35,025 |
(3,375) |
91% |
34 |
|
Arizona |
43,219 |
35,025 |
(5,437) |
87% |
34 |
Iowa |
34,927 |
(3,473) |
91% |
35 |
|
Iowa |
33,415 |
34,927 |
(5,535) |
86% |
35 |
Missouri |
34,680 |
(3,720) |
90% |
36 |
|
Missouri |
61,251 |
34,680 |
(5,782) |
86% |
36 |
Average S.E. State |
34,461 |
(3,939) |
90% |
--- |
|
South Carolina |
41,093 |
34,302 |
(6,160) |
85% |
37 |
South Carolina |
34,302 |
(4,098) |
89% |
37 |
|
West Virginia |
20,623 |
34,244 |
(6,218) |
85% |
38 |
West Virginia |
34,244 |
(4,156) |
89% |
38 |
|
Idaho |
13,225 |
33,949 |
(6,513) |
84% |
39 |
Idaho |
33,949 |
(4,451) |
88% |
39 |
|
North Carolina |
78,483 |
33,811 |
(6,651) |
84% |
40 |
North Carolina |
33,811 |
(4,589) |
88% |
40 |
|
Nebraska |
20,100 |
33,400 |
(7,062) |
83% |
41 |
Nebraska |
33,400 |
(5,000) |
87% |
41 |
|
Utah |
21,585 |
32,950 |
(7,512) |
81% |
42 |
Utah |
32,950 |
(5,450) |
86% |
42 |
|
Wyoming |
6,645 |
32,450 |
(8,012) |
80% |
43 |
Wyoming |
32,450 |
(5,950) |
85% |
43 |
|
Arkansas |
28,108 |
32,350 |
(8,112) |
80% |
44 |
Arkansas |
32,350 |
(6,050) |
84% |
44 |
|
New Mexico |
19,786 |
32,144 |
(8,318) |
79% |
45 |
New Mexico |
32,144 |
(6,256) |
84% |
45 |
|
Louisiana |
48,788 |
31,500 |
(8,962) |
78% |
46 |
Louisiana |
31,500 |
(6,900) |
82% |
46 |
|
Montana |
10,221 |
31,358 |
(9,104) |
77% |
47 |
Montana |
31,358 |
(7,042) |
82% |
47 |
|
Oklahoma |
40,559 |
31,149 |
(9,313) |
77% |
48 |
Oklahoma |
31,149 |
(7,251) |
81% |
48 |
|
Mississippi |
29,975 |
29,600 |
(10,862) |
73% |
49 |
Mississippi |
29,600 |
(8,800) |
77% |
49 |
|
North Dakota |
7,955 |
28,976 |
(11,486) |
72% |
50 |
North Dakota |
28,976 |
(9,424) |
75% |
50 |
|
South Dakota |
9,637 |
27,775 |
(12,687) |
69% |
51 |
South Dakota |
27,775 |
(10,625) |
72% |
51 |
|
Source: National Education Association, "Quarterly |
Source: National Education Association, "Quarterly |
||||||||||
Update," Spring 1999; PARCA calculations |
Update," Spring 1999; PARCA calculations |
||||||||||
teacher salary paid by the average state in 1998-99 was $38,400, a little over $2,000 lower than the salary paid to the average teacher in the U.S. Using this measure as a yardstick, Alabama's average teacher salary was $2,580, or seven percent, below the amount paid by the average state; it was $1,359 higher than the salary paid by the average southeastern state.
Table 7, below, shows how fast these average salaries are growing. Since 1994, the national average -- figured either way -- has grown by just under 2.5 percent a year. Alabama's average teacher salary would have to grow at a higher rate to overtake the national figure. Assuming stable growth for the national averages:
TABLE 7. Growth in Salary Averages |
|||||
Salary |
Salary |
||||
Paid to the |
Paid by the |
||||
Average |
Growth |
Average |
Growth |
||
Year |
Teacher |
Rate |
State |
Rate |
|
1999 |
$ 40,462 |
2.50% |
$ 38,402 |
2.48% |
|
1998 |
39,477 |
2.24% |
37,471 |
1.94% |
|
1997 |
38,611 |
2.41% |
36,757 |
2.46% |
|
1996 |
37,702 |
3.00% |
35,874 |
2.47% |
|
1995 |
36,605 |
2.37% |
35,009 |
2.86% |
|
1994 |
35,756 |
--- |
34,034 |
--- |
|
Compound Growth Rate |
2.46% |
2.45% |
|||
There is more than one way to achieve a targeted growth rate in the average salary. A growth rate of four percent, for example, could be achieved by providing an across-the-board four percent increase for every cell in the state salary matrix. But it also could be achieved by a combination of increases that provide greater rewards at the upper levels of the salary matrix, where Alabama does not compare favorably with regional competitor states such as Georgia and North Carolina. Given the distribution of teacher units shown earlier in Table 4 on page 6, each of the following combinations of percentage increases would produce a four-percent overall salary increase among Alabama teacher units:
| 0-2 years of experience: | 1.00% | 2.00% | 3.00% |
| 3-5 years of experience: | 1.75 | 2.50 | 3.25 |
| 6-8 years of experience: | 2.50 | 3.00 | 3.50 |
| 9-11 years of experience: | 3.25 | 3.50 | 3.75 |
| 12-14 years of experience: | 4.00 | 4.00 | 4.00 |
| 15-17 years of experience: | 4.75 | 4.50 | 4.25 |
| 18-20 years of experience: | 5.50 | 5.00 | 4.50 |
| 21+ years of experience: | 6.25 | 5.50 | 4.75 |
How would the state target a national average figure? In Georgia's case, the Governor set a goal of reaching the national average, but no statutory mechanism was created. Rather, the Governor and Legislature decide teacher salary increases each year in the normal budgeting process. In North Carolina, the Governor also set the goal of reaching the national average. The Legislature adopted an act stating the intent to raise teacher salaries over a four-year period to attract and retain excellent teachers, but the act provides that it does not obligate the General Assembly to appropriate any funds.
Fringe Benefit Contributions
The value of a teacher's salary can be affected by the fringe benefits provided, and by the distribution of fringe benefit costs between the employer and employee. Table 8, on the following page, shows selected fringe benefit contributions by teachers and employers in the fifty states. Alabama is one of 37 states providing Social Security coverage for its teachers, and one of 45 states requiring teachers to make a contribution toward their retirement program. Alabama teachers, along with those in six other states, contribute 12.65 percent of their salaries toward these two retirement programs. Eighteen states, including four in the southeast, require larger teacher contributions; 25 states, including two in the southeast, require less.
Employer contributions in Alabama for these retirement benefit programs totaled 16.85 percent of payroll in 1997-98. Seventeen states paid more, and 32 states paid lower percentages. (The employer's retirement contribution will vary from year to year in most states, due to actuarial factors.)
We found no readily available comparative data on the cost of health insurance benefits for teachers.
Adjustments to the Average Teacher Salary
Fringe benefit contributions are deductions from teacher salaries, and they can make a big difference in comparisons. As Table 8 shows, teachers in Rhode Island contribute over seventeen percent of salaries for Social Security and retirement benefits, while teachers in Nevada contribute only 1.45 percent for Medicare. Low fringe-benefit contributions are in fact a part of the salary strategy of states such as Florida, which requires no employee contribution toward teacher retirement. Adjusting average salary figures for differences in the amount of salary deductions therefore provides a more complete comparison among the states than the unadjusted figures in Table 6.
Similarly, adjusting average salaries for interstate differences in the cost of living provides more complete information about how teacher salaries compare. The AFT produces a cost-of-living index that it uses to adjust average teacher salaries for comparison purposes. Current values of this index, which compares each state to the U.S. average, range from 130 percent in Hawaii to 88 percent in Arkansas. It is clear, for example, that living expenses are much greater in Hawaii than in the continental U.S., and equally clear that such costs are figured into employment considerations. Thus, it is appropriate to adjust for the cost differences in comparing Hawaii's average teacher salary to that in other states. In the same way, it is well known that southeastern states enjoy a relatively low cost of living, due to climate and other advantages, which is an appropriate consideration in evaluating their average salaries.
TABLE 8. Selected Fringe Benefit Contributions, 1997-98 |
|||||||||||
Teacher Contributions |
Employer Contributions |
||||||||||
Social |
Social |
||||||||||
Security/ |
Security/ |
||||||||||
State |
Medicare |
Retirement |
Total |
State |
Medicare |
Retirement |
Total |
||||
Rhode Island |
7.65% |
9.50% |
p |
17.15% |
Hawaii |
7.65% |
18.50% |
26.15% |
|||
Michigan |
7.65% |
8.00% |
p* |
15.65% |
Florida |
7.65% |
17.00% |
24.65% |
|||
New Mexico |
7.65% |
7.60% |
p |
15.25% |
Oregon |
7.65% |
15.80% |
23.45% |
|||
Mississippi |
7.65% |
7.30% |
p |
14.95% |
West Virginia |
7.65% |
15.00% |
22.65% |
|||
Idaho |
7.65% |
7.00% |
p |
14.65% |
Maryland |
7.65% |
13.50% |
21.15% |
|||
Maryland |
7.65% |
7.00% |
14.65% |
Utah |
7.65% |
13.00% |
20.65% |
||||
Montana |
7.65% |
7.00% |
p |
14.65% |
Nevada |
1.45% |
18.75% |
20.20% |
|||
North Dakota |
7.65% |
6.80% |
p |
14.45% |
Washington |
7.65% |
12.20% |
19.85% |
|||
Washington |
7.65% |
6.60% |
p |
14.25% |
Arkansas |
7.65% |
12.00% |
19.65% |
|||
Nebraska |
7.65% |
6.50% |
p |
14.15% |
Maine |
1.45% |
18.20% |
19.65% |
|||
Oklahoma |
7.65% |
6.50% |
p* |
14.15% |
Georgia |
7.65% |
11.80% |
19.45% |
|||
Wisconsin |
7.65% |
6.50% |
p |
14.15% |
Idaho |
7.65% |
11.60% |
19.25% |
|||
Pennsylvania |
7.65% |
6.30% |
p |
13.95% |
Pennsylvania |
7.65% |
10.60% |
18.25% |
|||
Arkansas |
7.65% |
6.00% |
13.65% |
Louisiana |
1.45% |
16.30% |
17.75% |
||||
North Carolina |
7.65% |
6.00% |
p |
13.65% |
Rhode Island |
7.65% |
10.10% |
17.75% |
|||
South Carolina |
7.65% |
6.00% |
p |
13.65% |
Massachusetts |
1.45% |
16.00% |
17.45% |
|||
West Virginia |
7.65% |
6.00% |
p |
13.65% |
Mississippi |
7.65% |
9.80% |
17.45% |
|||
Wyoming |
7.65% |
5.60% |
p |
13.25% |
Alabama |
7.65% |
9.20% |
16.85% |
|||
Alabama |
7.65% |
5.00% |
p |
12.65% |
Michigan |
7.65% |
8.80% |
16.45% |
|||
Georgia |
7.65% |
5.00% |
p |
12.65% |
New Mexico |
7.65% |
8.70% |
16.35% |
|||
New Hampshire |
7.65% |
5.00% |
p |
12.65% |
Oklahoma |
7.65% |
8.50% |
16.15% |
|||
New Jersey |
7.65% |
5.00% |
p |
12.65% |
Tennessee |
7.65% |
8.50% |
16.15% |
|||
South Dakota |
7.65% |
5.00% |
p |
12.65% |
Minnesota |
7.65% |
8.20% |
15.85% |
|||
Tennessee |
7.65% |
5.00% |
12.65% |
North Carolina |
7.65% |
8.20% |
15.85% |
||||
Virginia |
7.65% |
5.00% |
p |
12.65% |
Average State |
6.04% |
9.74% |
15.78% |
|||
Minnesota |
7.65% |
4.50% |
p |
12.15% |
Ohio |
1.45% |
14.00% |
15.45% |
|||
Missouri |
1.45% |
10.50% |
11.95% |
Indiana |
7.65% |
7.80% |
15.45% |
||||
Average State |
6.04% |
5.71% |
11.74% |
South Carolina |
7.65% |
7.70% |
15.35% |
||||
Kansas |
7.65% |
4.00% |
p |
11.65% |
Vermont |
7.65% |
7.70% |
15.35% |
|||
Kentucky |
1.45% |
9.90% |
p |
11.35% |
Montana |
7.65% |
7.50% |
15.15% |
|||
Iowa |
7.65% |
3.70% |
p |
11.35% |
Nebraska |
7.65% |
7.20% |
14.85% |
|||
Vermont |
7.65% |
3.70% |
11.35% |
Kentucky |
1.45% |
13.10% |
14.55% |
||||
Arizona |
7.65% |
3.20% |
10.85% |
North Dakota |
7.65% |
6.80% |
14.45% |
||||
Ohio |
1.45% |
9.30% |
p |
10.75% |
New York |
7.65% |
6.40% |
14.05% |
|||
Delaware |
7.65% |
3.00% |
10.65% |
Wisconsin |
7.65% |
6.40% |
14.05% |
||||
Indiana |
7.65% |
3.00% |
p |
10.65% |
Virginia |
7.65% |
6.20% |
13.85% |
|||
New York |
7.65% |
3.00% |
p |
10.65% |
Delaware |
7.65% |
6.10% |
13.75% |
|||
Alaska |
1.45% |
8.70% |
p |
10.15% |
Alaska |
1.45% |
12.00% |
13.45% |
|||
Illinois |
1.45% |
8.50% |
p |
9.95% |
Iowa |
7.65% |
5.80% |
13.45% |
|||
California |
1.45% |
8.00% |
p |
9.45% |
Wyoming |
7.65% |
5.70% |
13.35% |
|||
Colorado |
1.45% |
8.00% |
p |
9.45% |
Colorado |
1.45% |
11.60% |
13.05% |
|||
Louisiana |
1.45% |
8.00% |
p |
9.45% |
South Dakota |
7.65% |
5.00% |
12.65% |
|||
Massachusetts |
1.45% |
8.00% |
9.45% |
Missouri |
1.45% |
10.50% |
11.95% |
||||
Maine |
1.45% |
7.70% |
p |
9.15% |
New Hampshire |
7.65% |
3.40% |
11.05% |
|||
Connecticut |
1.45% |
7.00% |
8.45% |
Kansas |
7.65% |
3.30% |
10.95% |
||||
Texas |
1.45% |
6.40% |
p |
7.85% |
Arizona |
7.65% |
3.20% |
10.85% |
|||
Florida |
7.65% |
0.00% |
7.65% |
California |
1.45% |
9.40% |
10.85% |
||||
Hawaii |
7.65% |
0.00% |
7.65% |
New Jersey |
7.65% |
1.00% |
8.65% |
||||
Oregon |
7.65% |
0.00% |
** |
7.65% |
Connecticut |
1.45% |
6.50% |
7.95% |
|||
Utah |
7.65% |
0.00% |
7.65% |
Illinois |
1.45% |
6.30% |
7.75% |
||||
Nevada |
1.45% |
0.00% |
** |
1.45% |
Texas |
1.45% |
6.00% |
7.45% |
|||
* Average contribution. pEmployer pick-up of employee contribution permitted. ** Employer pick-up required. |
|||||||||||
Sources: American Federation of Teachers, "Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends, 1998"; PARCA calculations |
|||||||||||
Table 9, on the following page, adjusts the average teacher salary for each state (from Table 6) to take into account both teacher contributions for fringe benefits (from Table 8) and the cost of living. The result is a net salary adjusted for cost of living, as shown in the fifth column of figures. The states are ranked according to this adjusted salary figure, and the difference between each state's adjusted average and the U.S. average is calculated. With these adjustments, Alabama's average teacher salary rises in rank to 23rd among the fifty states, only two percent and $713 below the U.S. average. Georgia rises to a twelfth-place ranking, with an effective salary that is five percent above the U.S. average. Among southeastern states, North Carolina fares worst after these adjustments because of its relatively high cost of living.
TABLE 9. Average Salary Adjusted for Employee's Share of Fringe Benefits and Cost of Living, 1998-99 |
||||||||
Employee |
Salary |
Cost |
Net Salary |
Adjusted Net Salary |
||||
Contributions |
Adjusted for |
of |
Adjusted for |
Amount Above |
Percent |
|||
Average |
(Percent of |
Benefit |
Living |
Cost of |
or Below U.S. |
of |
||
State |
Salary |
Salary) |
Contributions |
Factor |
Living |
Average |
US |
Rank |
Michigan |
$48,207 |
15.65% |
$ 40,663 |
0.947 |
$ 42,938 |
$ 7,227 |
120% |
1 |
Pennsylvania |
48,297 |
13.95% |
41,560 |
1.000 |
41,560 |
5,848 |
116% |
2 |
Illinois |
45,569 |
9.95% |
41,035 |
1.001 |
40,994 |
5,282 |
115% |
3 |
New York |
49,437 |
10.65% |
44,172 |
1.097 |
40,266 |
4,554 |
113% |
4 |
Oregon |
43,250 |
7.65% |
39,941 |
0.994 |
40,182 |
4,471 |
113% |
5 |
Connecticut |
51,424 |
8.45% |
47,079 |
1.188 |
39,629 |
3,917 |
111% |
6 |
Indiana |
40,650 |
10.65% |
36,321 |
0.921 |
39,436 |
3,724 |
110% |
7 |
New Jersey |
51,193 |
12.65% |
44,717 |
1.157 |
38,649 |
2,937 |
108% |
8 |
Nevada |
38,867 |
1.45% |
38,303 |
0.994 |
38,535 |
2,823 |
108% |
9 |
Delaware |
43,164 |
10.65% |
38,567 |
1.016 |
37,960 |
2,248 |
106% |
10 |
Ohio |
40,508 |
10.75% |
36,153 |
0.957 |
37,778 |
2,066 |
106% |
11 |
Georgia |
39,675 |
12.65% |
34,656 |
0.928 |
37,345 |
1,633 |
105% |
12 |
Wisconsin |
40,775 |
14.15% |
35,005 |
0.943 |
37,121 |
1,409 |
104% |
13 |
Minnesota |
39,975 |
12.15% |
35,118 |
0.967 |
36,316 |
605 |
102% |
14 |
Kansas |
37,731 |
11.65% |
33,335 |
0.924 |
36,077 |
365 |
101% |
15 |
Texas |
35,041 |
7.85% |
32,290 |
0.899 |
35,918 |
206 |
101% |
16 |
Massachusetts |
45,075 |
9.45% |
40,815 |
1.137 |
35,897 |
186 |
101% |
17 |
US Average |
40,462 |
11.74% |
35,712 |
1.000 |
35,712 |
--- |
100% |
--- |
California |
45,400 |
9.45% |
41,110 |
1.154 |
35,624 |
(88) |
100% |
18 |
Tennessee |
36,500 |
12.65% |
31,883 |
0.899 |
35,465 |
(247) |
99% |
19 |
Kentucky |
35,300 |
11.35% |
31,293 |
0.887 |
35,280 |
(432) |
99% |
20 |
Florida |
35,749 |
7.65% |
33,014 |
0.937 |
35,234 |
(478) |
99% |
21 |
Rhode Island |
45,650 |
17.15% |
37,821 |
1.077 |
35,117 |
(595) |
98% |
22 |
Alabama |
35,820 |
12.65% |
31,289 |
0.894 |
34,999 |
(713) |
98% |
23 |
Maryland |
42,624 |
14.65% |
36,380 |
1.065 |
34,159 |
(1,553) |
96% |
24 |
Iowa |
34,927 |
11.35% |
30,963 |
0.917 |
33,765 |
(1,946) |
95% |
25 |
Colorado |
38,025 |
9.45% |
34,432 |
1.022 |
33,690 |
(2,021) |
94% |
26 |
Virginia |
37,475 |
12.65% |
32,734 |
0.972 |
33,677 |
(2,034) |
94% |
27 |
Alaska |
46,845 |
10.15% |
42,090 |
1.250 |
33,672 |
(2,040) |
94% |
28 |
West Virginia |
34,244 |
13.65% |
29,570 |
0.886 |
33,374 |
(2,337) |
93% |
29 |
Vermont |
36,800 |
11.35% |
32,623 |
0.979 |
33,323 |
(2,389) |
93% |
30 |
Maine |
35,050 |
9.15% |
31,843 |
0.973 |
32,727 |
(2,985) |
92% |
31 |
South Carolina |
34,302 |
13.65% |
29,620 |
0.908 |
32,621 |
(3,091) |
91% |
32 |
Missouri |
34,680 |
11.95% |
30,536 |
0.939 |
32,519 |
(3,192) |
91% |
33 |
Washington |
38,862 |
14.25% |
33,324 |
1.036 |
32,166 |
(3,546) |
90% |
34 |
Arkansas |
32,350 |
13.65% |
27,934 |
0.878 |
31,816 |
(3,896) |
89% |
35 |
Utah |
32,950 |
7.65% |
30,429 |
0.964 |
31,566 |
(4,146) |
88% |
36 |
Louisiana |
31,500 |
9.45% |
28,523 |
0.907 |
31,448 |
(4,264) |
88% |
37 |
Arizona |
35,025 |
10.85% |
31,225 |
0.994 |
31,413 |
(4,298) |
88% |
38 |
Nebraska |
33,400 |
14.15% |
28,674 |
0.921 |
31,133 |
(4,578) |
87% |
39 |
New Hampshire |
37,325 |
12.65% |
32,603 |
1.058 |
30,816 |
(4,896) |
86% |
40 |
Oklahoma |
31,149 |
14.15% |
26,741 |
0.880 |
30,388 |
(5,324) |
85% |
41 |
Idaho |
33,949 |
14.65% |
28,975 |
0.959 |
30,214 |
(5,498) |
85% |
42 |
Wyoming |
32,450 |
13.25% |
28,150 |
0.981 |
28,696 |
(7,016) |
80% |
43 |
Hawaii |
40,377 |
7.65% |
37,288 |
1.300 |
28,683 |
(7,029) |
80% |
44 |
Mississippi |
29,600 |
14.95% |
25,175 |
0.881 |
28,575 |
(7,137) |
80% |
45 |
New Mexico |
32,144 |
15.25% |
27,242 |
0.964 |
28,259 |
(7,452) |
79% |
46 |
Montana |
31,358 |
14.65% |
26,764 |
0.955 |
28,025 |
(7,687) |
78% |
47 |
North Carolina |
33,811 |
13.65% |
29,196 |
1.058 |
27,595 |
(8,116) |
77% |
48 |
South Dakota |
27,775 |
12.65% |
24,261 |
0.899 |
26,987 |
(8,725) |
76% |
49 |
North Dakota |
28,976 |
14.45% |
24,789 |
0.936 |
26,484 |
(9,228) |
74% |
50 |
Sources: National Education Association (Average Salaries); American Federation of Teachers (Fringe Benefit |
||||||||
Contributions and Cost of Living Index); PARCA calculations. |
||||||||
Table 10 shows another comparison that places average teacher salaries in perspective. This table, modeled after a table included in the AFT's Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends, 1998, compares the average teacher salary in each state with that state's per-capita personal income. This indicates how teacher salaries compare with the general level of income in the state. The average teacher salary in Alabama ranks eighth in terms of its ratio to per-capita personal income in the state. Six other southeastern states also rank above the national average.
TABLE 10. Average Teacher Salary, 1998-99, |
||||
Compared to Per Capita Personal Income, 1998 |
||||
1998-99 |
1998 |
Ratio of Teacher |
||
Average |
Per Capita |
Salary to Per |
||
Teacher |
Personal |
Capita Personal |
||
State |
Salary |
Income |
Income |
Rank |
Michigan |
$ 48,207 |
$ 25,979 |
1.86 |
1 |
Alaska |
46,845 |
25,771 |
1.82 |
2 |
Pennsylvania |
48,297 |
26,889 |
1.80 |
3 |
West Virginia |
34,244 |
19,373 |
1.77 |
4 |
Oregon |
43,250 |
24,775 |
1.75 |
5 |
Rhode Island |
45,650 |
26,924 |
1.70 |
6 |
Indiana |
40,650 |
24,302 |
1.67 |
7 |
Alabama |
35,820 |
21,500 |
1.67 |
8 |
California |
45,400 |
27,579 |
1.65 |
9 |
Kentucky |
35,300 |
21,551 |
1.64 |
10 |
Wisconsin |
40,775 |
25,184 |
1.62 |
11 |
Idaho |
33,949 |
21,080 |
1.61 |
12 |
New Mexico |
32,144 |
20,008 |
1.61 |
13 |
Ohio |
40,508 |
25,239 |
1.60 |
14 |
South Carolina |
34,302 |
21,387 |
1.60 |
15 |
Arkansas |
32,350 |
20,393 |
1.59 |
16 |
Georgia |
39,675 |
25,106 |
1.58 |
17 |
Illinois |
45,569 |
28,976 |
1.57 |
18 |
Utah |
32,950 |
21,096 |
1.56 |
19 |
New York |
49,437 |
31,679 |
1.56 |
20 |
Mississippi |
29,600 |
18,998 |
1.56 |
21 |
Montana |
31,358 |
20,247 |
1.55 |
22 |
Tennessee |
36,500 |
23,615 |
1.55 |
23 |
Hawaii |
40,377 |
26,210 |
1.54 |
24 |
US Average |
40,462 |
26,482 |
1.53 |
--- |
Maine |
35,050 |
23,002 |
1.52 |
25 |
Vermont |
36,800 |
24,217 |
1.52 |
26 |
Arizona |
35,025 |
23,152 |
1.51 |
27 |
New Jersey |
51,193 |
33,953 |
1.51 |
28 |
Kansas |
37,731 |
25,049 |
1.51 |
29 |
Oklahoma |
31,149 |
21,056 |
1.48 |
30 |
Louisiana |
31,500 |
21,385 |
1.47 |
31 |
Iowa |
34,927 |
24,007 |
1.45 |
32 |
Minnesota |
39,975 |
27,667 |
1.44 |
33 |
Delaware |
43,164 |
29,932 |
1.44 |
34 |
Nevada |
38,867 |
27,360 |
1.42 |
35 |
Maryland |
42,624 |
30,023 |
1.42 |
36 |
Missouri |
34,680 |
24,447 |
1.42 |
37 |
North Carolina |
33,811 |
24,122 |
1.40 |
38 |
Texas |
35,041 |
25,028 |
1.40 |
39 |
Wyoming |
32,450 |
23,225 |
1.40 |
40 |
Washington |
38,862 |
28,066 |
1.38 |
41 |
Florida |
35,749 |
25,922 |
1.38 |
42 |
Massachusetts |
45,075 |
32,902 |
1.37 |
43 |
Connecticut |
51,424 |
37,700 |
1.36 |
44 |
Virginia |
37,475 |
27,489 |
1.36 |
45 |
Nebraska |
33,400 |
24,786 |
1.35 |
46 |
North Dakota |
28,976 |
21,708 |
1.33 |
47 |
Colorado |
38,025 |
28,821 |
1.32 |
48 |
New Hampshire |
37,325 |
29,219 |
1.28 |
49 |
District of Columbia |
47,150 |
37,325 |
1.26 |
50 |
South Dakota |
27,775 |
22,201 |
1.25 |
51 |
Sources: National Education Association (Salaries); Bureau of Economic |
||||
Analysis, US Dept. of Commerce (Personal Income); PARCA calculations |
||||
Retirement Benefits
Retirement provisions constitute the final part of the compensation package provided teachers. Retirement programs are available to teachers in all fifty states. Alabama teachers participate in the Teachers' Retirement System, which is part of the Retirement Systems of Alabama. Teachers are eligible to retire after 25 years of service and draw full retirement benefits. The benefit payment is based on the following formula: years of service X 2.0125% X final average compensation. In addition, Alabama is one of 37 states that have provided for Social Security coverage of teachers. In these states, the Social Security benefit is in effect part of the retirement package. Some of the states that do not provide Social Security coverage have more generous retirement benefit formulas that offset all or part of the difference.
Table 11, on the next page, provides a comparison of the teacher retirement programs in the fifty states. The data are based on a survey done by the State of Wisconsin Retirement Research Committee. The first column shows the age at which a teacher who begins service at age 22 becomes eligible for normal retirement benefits. Teachers in Alaska become eligible for normal retirement after twenty years of service, the earliest of any state. Teachers in Alabama and three other states become eligible after 25 years of service. Eligibility comes later in the remaining 45 states.
The second column in the table shows the multiplier in the retirement benefit formula. Nine states have benefit multipliers higher than Alabama's 2.0125 percent. None of these except New Mexico allows teachers to draw normal retirement benefits as early as does Alabama.
The third column in the table indicates whether states have automatic cost-of-living benefit adjustments. Alabama is one of fourteen states that do not have automatic adjustments, although the Legislature in the past has provided increases in retiree pay when teacher salaries are increased. In the 36 states that provide automatic adjustments, the usual practice is to base them on increases in the Consumer Price Index.
The fourth column in the table indicates whether states provide for Social Security coverage of teachers.
It is impossible to describe completely how teacher retirement programs compare from the indicators in the first four columns of Table 10. To develop a better comparison, we calculated the present value of potential retirement benefits to a teacher at age 22 in each of the fifty states. We assumed that the individual works as a teacher until able to draw a normal retirement, with final average salary equal to the current state average teacher salary. We further assumed that the teacher draws a normal retirement when first eligible (even though he or she might continue to work elsewhere), and then begins to draw Social Security at age 62 if it is provided as a result of teacher service. We built in any automatic cost-of-living increases in benefits, assuming a Consumer Price Index rise of two percent per year. We assumed that the teacher survives to age 76. We calculated the present value of the benefits produced by these assumptions, using a four-percent discount factor. The dollar-value results from this exercise are shown in the fifth column of Table 11, and states are ranked from high to low dollar values. While it would be wrong to push the accuracy of these figures too far, the data suggest that Alabama's teacher retirement benefits are very competitive, ranking sixteenth among the fifty states and fourth within the southeast.
TABLE 11. Retirement Provisions for a Beginning Teacher, Age 22 |
|||||||
Age When |
Multiplier |
Cost-of- |
Present |
||||
Eligible for |
in the |
Living |
Social |
Value of |
|||
Normal |
Benefit |
Benefit |
Security |
Potential |
|||
State |
Retirement |
Formula |
Adjustments |
Coverage |
Benefits* |
Rank |
|
Rhode Island |
50 |
2.3036% |
Yes |
Yes |
$ 245,435 |
1 |
|
Alaska |
42 |
2.0000% |
Yes |
No |
214,902 |
2 |
|
Nevada |
52 |
2.5000% |
Yes |
No |
174,096 |
3 |
|
Michigan |
52 |
1.5000% |
Yes |
Yes |
162,550 |
4 |
|
Georgia |
52 |
2.0000% |
Yes |
Yes |
160,759 |
5 |
|
New Mexico |
47 |
2.3500% |
Yes |
Yes |
159,079 |
6 |
|
Ohio |
52 |
2.1000% |
Yes |
No |
152,415 |
7 |
|
Arizona |
51 |
2.0000% |
Yes |
Yes |
148,853 |
8 |
|
Oregon |
52 |
1.6700% |
Yes |
Yes |
147,998 |
9 |
|
Connecticut |
57 |
2.0000% |
Yes |
No |
146,354 |
10 |
|
New York |
55 |
1.9545% |
No |
Yes |
146,104 |
11 |
|
New Jersey |
55 |
1.6700% |
Yes |
Yes |
143,886 |
12 |
|
Missouri |
52 |
2.3000% |
Yes |
No |
142,914 |
13 |
|
Kentucky |
49 |
2.5000% |
No |
No |
140,342 |
14 |
|
Tennessee |
52 |
1.7500% |
Yes |
Yes |
139,303 |
15 |
|
Alabama |
47 |
2.0125% |
No |
Yes |
137,995 |
16 |
|
Utah |
52 |
2.0000% |
Yes |
Yes |
136,661 |
17 |
|
Pennsylvania |
57 |
2.0000% |
No |
Yes |
135,612 |
18 |
|
Mississippi |
47 |
1.8750% |
Yes |
Yes |
135,120 |
19 |
|
Florida |
52 |
1.6000% |
Yes |
Yes |
132,463 |
20 |
|
South Carolina |
52 |
1.8200% |
Yes |
Yes |
130,443 |
21 |
|
Vermont |
52 |
1.6700% |
Yes |
Yes |
128,698 |
22 |
|
Colorado |
55 |
2.1061% |
Yes |
No |
126,138 |
23 |
|
North Carolina |
52 |
1.7500% |
Yes |
Yes |
124,601 |
24 |
|
Delaware |
52 |
1.6700% |
No |
Yes |
124,312 |
25 |
|
Idaho |
56 |
1.9700% |
Yes |
Yes |
118,881 |
26 |
|
Wyoming |
54 |
2.0000% |
Yes |
Yes |
116,027 |
27 |
|
Louisiana |
52 |
2.5000% |
No |
No |
115,502 |
28 |
|
Iowa |
56 |
1.8824% |
Yes |
Yes |
113,834 |
29 |
|
Virginia |
55 |
1.6000% |
Yes |
Yes |
113,028 |
30 |
|
Illinois |
57 |
1.6700% |
Yes |
No |
112,919 |
31 |
|
Wisconsin |
57 |
1.6000% |
Yes |
Yes |
111,425 |
32 |
|
Kansas |
54 |
1.7500% |
No |
Yes |
109,109 |
33 |
|
West Virginia |
55 |
2.0000% |
No |
Yes |
108,972 |
34 |
|
California |
60 |
2.0000% |
Yes |
No |
107,947 |
35 |
|
Hawaii |
55 |
1.2500% |
Yes |
Yes |
105,776 |
36 |
|
Montana |
47 |
1.6700% |
No |
Yes |
105,331 |
37 |
|
Texas |
52 |
2.0000% |
No |
No |
102,788 |
38 |
|
Oklahoma |
56 |
2.0000% |
No |
Yes |
97,488 |
39 |
|
Maryland |
52 |
1.0000% |
Yes |
Yes |
94,957 |
40 |
|
Nebraska |
56 |
1.7300% |
Yes |
Yes |
93,601 |
41 |
|
Arkansas |
52 |
1.2900% |
Yes |
Yes |
93,358 |
42 |
|
Massachusetts |
65 |
2.5000% |
Yes |
No |
89,734 |
43 |
|
New Hampshire |
60 |
1.6700% |
No |
Yes |
83,253 |
44 |
|
North Dakota |
54 |
1.5500% |
No |
Yes |
80,160 |
45 |
|
Indiana |
54 |
1.1000% |
No |
Yes |
79,889 |
+ |
46 |
South Dakota |
55 |
1.4000% |
Yes |
Yes |
79,834 |
47 |
|
Maine |
62 |
2.0000% |
Yes |
No |
72,291 |
48 |
|
Minnesota |
65 |
1.5000% |
Yes |
Yes |
47,749 |
49 |
|
Washington |
65 |
1.0000% |
Yes |
Yes |
30,946 |
+ |
50 |
*Assumes a teacher begins at age 22, works until able to draw a normal retirement, with final |
|||||||
average salary equal to state average teacher salary, draws retirement at that point and Social |
|||||||
Security at 62 (if included in teacher retirement provisions), surviving until age 76. CPI-based |
|||||||
COLA adjustments are 2%, and the present-value discount rate is 4%. |
|||||||
+Plus an annuity, the details of which are not included in these calculations. |
|||||||
Source: State of Wisconsin Retirement Research Committee, 1996 Survey of Statewide |
|||||||
Employee Retirement Systems; PARCA calculations |
|||||||
Professional Conditions
In addition to monetary compensation, working conditions are important determinants of teachers professional satisfaction and success. The following conditions are among the most significant:
An adequate teacher-student ratio. Teachers must be able to give students the personal attention needed to accomplish their teaching mission, and this calls for an adequate teacher-student ratio. The teacher-student ratio in Alabama is better than the national average. Table 12, on the following page, shows the number of teachers per 100 students in the public schools of every state during 1998-99. Alabama's ratio of 6.24 teachers per 100 students ranked 27th among the fifty states and the District of Columbia and was four percent better than the national average of 6.02. Four southeastern states had slightly better teacher-student ratios than Alabama, while the other five ranked below Alabama.
A side effect of lower teacher-student ratios is the need for more classroom space to house the smaller classes that result. Many of Alabama's school facilities require renovation to eliminate substandard conditions and overcrowding, and the Legislature in recent years has approved over $700 million in borrowing for this purpose. Reductions in elementary-grade class sizes under the current Foundation Program have added to the need for classroom space.
An adequate school calendar. The school year must provide sufficient time to accomplish the required learning objectives. Unfortunately, Alabama has one of the shortest school years of any state. Table 13, on page 19, shows the number of school days required by each state in 1998. Thirty-six states require 180 days or more of school during the year (or the equivalent in terms of hours), including six of the ten southeastern states. Alabama is among a group of nine states requiring 175 days. Only two states require less than 175 days, and two others have no standards that can be translated into a minimum number of days.
Access to adequate professional development, technology, and other forms of instructional support. School systems must invest in the kinds of instructional support that teachers require to achieve success. Among these are professional development opportunities, technological support, and academic materials such as textbooks, library resources, and classroom supplies. Alabama invests very little to support its teachers in their work.
First and foremost, teachers and school administrators must have access to high-quality, continuing professional development throughout their careers. The National Commission on Teaching and America's Future recommends spending at least one percent of public school funds on professional development activities. Comparative data on professional development spending are not readily available, but two states have programs worth considering as models:
TABLE 12. Students Per Teacher, 1998-99 |
||||
Number |
Student |
Students |
Rank |
|
of |
Enroll- |
Per |
Low |
|
Teachers |
ment |
Teacher |
to |
|
State |
1998-99 |
1998-99 |
1998-99 |
High |
Vermont |
8,084 |
106,691 |
13.20 |
1 |
New Jersey |
93,090 |
1,240,874 |
13.33 |
2 |
Rhode Island |
11,395 |
153,610 |
13.48 |
3 |
South Dakota |
9,637 |
131,061 |
13.60 |
4 |
Connecticut |
39,311 |
545,663 |
13.88 |
5 |
Maine |
14,776 |
205,111 |
13.88 |
6 |
Virginia |
79,803 |
1,124,022 |
14.08 |
7 |
New York |
201,168 |
2,838,554 |
14.11 |
8 |
Wyoming |
6,645 |
94,420 |
14.21 |
9 |
West Virginia |
20,623 |
296,562 |
14.38 |
10 |
North Dakota |
7,955 |
114,597 |
14.41 |
11 |
Nebraska |
20,100 |
289,981 |
14.43 |
12 |
District of Columbia |
5,462 |
79,434 |
14.54 |
13 |
Missouri |
61,251 |
893,596 |
14.59 |
14 |
Massachusetts |
64,985 |
948,313 |
14.59 |
15 |
Kansas |
31,899 |
469,758 |
14.73 |
16 |
Iowa |
33,415 |
502,570 |
15.04 |
17 |
New Hampshire |
13,195 |
200,497 |
15.19 |
18 |
Texas |
261,275 |
3,971,267 |
15.20 |
19 |
Oklahoma |
40,559 |
628,510 |
15.50 |
20 |
North Carolina |
78,483 |
1,225,614 |
15.62 |
21 |
Montana |
10,221 |
159,992 |
15.65 |
22 |
Louisiana |
48,788 |
766,169 |
15.70 |
23 |
Georgia |
88,654 |
1,401,291 |
15.81 |
24 |
South Carolina |
41,093 |
654,993 |
15.94 |
25 |
Delaware |
7,073 |
113,082 |
15.99 |
26 |
Alabama |
46,177 |
739,956 |
16.02 |
27 |
Wisconsin |
55,024 |
889,243 |
16.16 |
28 |
Arkansas |
28,108 |
456,710 |
16.25 |
29 |
Minnesota |
51,888 |
857,859 |
16.53 |
30 |
Illinois |
122,122 |
2,027,910 |
16.61 |
31 |
U.S. Average |
2,778,499 |
46,160,838 |
16.61 |
--- |
Mississippi |
29,975 |
502,379 |
16.76 |
32 |
Pennsylvania |
108,350 |
1,818,090 |
16.78 |
33 |
Ohio |
108,631 |
1,828,597 |
16.83 |
34 |
Tennessee |
53,593 |
903,319 |
16.86 |
35 |
Maryland |
49,490 |
837,247 |
16.92 |
36 |
Hawaii |
11,019 |
187,395 |
17.01 |
37 |
Kentucky |
38,007 |
646,468 |
17.01 |
38 |
New Mexico |
19,786 |
336,708 |
17.02 |
39 |
Indiana |
57,538 |
987,633 |
17.16 |
40 |
Alaska |
7,696 |
134,654 |
17.50 |
41 |
Florida |
129,731 |
2,331,958 |
17.98 |
42 |
Colorado |
38,089 |
699,135 |
18.36 |
43 |
Idaho |
13,225 |
244,550 |
18.49 |
44 |
Michigan |
91,233 |
1,700,184 |
18.64 |
45 |
Nevada |
16,677 |
311,063 |
18.65 |
46 |
Arizona |
43,219 |
823,040 |
19.04 |
47 |
Oregon |
27,800 |
542,260 |
19.51 |
48 |
Washington |
50,057 |
999,628 |
19.97 |
49 |
California |
260,539 |
5,721,559 |
21.96 |
50 |
Utah |
21,585 |
477,061 |
22.10 |
51 |
Source: National Education Association, "Quarterly Update," Spring 1999; PARCA calculations |
||||
TABLE 13. Length of the School Year, 1998 |
|
Length of School Year in Days 1998 |
|
State |
|
Texas |
187 |
Kansas |
186 |
Hawaii |
184 |
Ohio |
182 |
Alaska |
180 |
Colorado |
180 |
Connecticut |
180 |
District of Columbia |
180 |
Florida |
180 |
Georgia |
180 |
Idaho |
180 |
Illinois |
180 |
Indiana |
180 |
Iowa |
180 |
Maryland |
180 |
Massachusetts |
180 |
Michigan |
180 |
Mississippi |
180 |
Montana |
180 |
Nebraska |
180 |
Nevada |
180 |
New Hampshire |
180 |
New Jersey |
180 |
New Mexico |
180 |
New York |
180 |
North Carolina |
180 |
Oklahoma |
180 |
Pennsylvania |
180 |
Rhode Island |
180 |
South Carolina |
180 |
Tennessee |
180 |
Utah |
180 |
Virginia |
180 |
Washington |
180 |
West Virginia |
180 |
Wisconsin |
180 |
Arkansas |
178 |
Delaware |
177 |
Alabama |
175 |
Arizona |
175 |
California |
175 |
Kentucky |
175 |
Louisiana |
175 |
Maine |
175 |
South Dakota |
175 |
Vermont |
175 |
Wyoming |
175 |
Missouri |
174 |
North Dakota |
173 |
Minnesota |
--- |
Oregon |
--- |
Source: Council of Chief State School |
|
Officers, "State Education Policies 1998" |
|
new teachers. The Georgia Education Leadership Academy provides training for school leaders and serves as an innovation center for professional development. Sixteen state-funded regional education service agencies provide staff development and other services in response to local needs, and ten technology training centers provide specialized training in this field.
In the current year's budget, Georgia's cost-of-instruction appropriations and professional development stipends amount to $338 per teacher; Alabama's Foundation Program allocation for professional development, which is our equivalent to these monies, amounts to $60 per teacher.
Missouri's Foundation-Program set-aside for professional development requires
expenditures of at least $244 per teacher in the current fiscal year -- more than four times the $60 per teacher unit provided in our Foundation Program.
Second, teachers must have access to technological support. This should include
computer technology with access to e-mail, educational software, and the Internet; adequate numbers of computers for instructional use; and technology staff support. Table 14, on page 21, shows the results of a nationwide teacher survey on technology issues conducted for Education Week Magazine in September 1999. The results indicate that Alabama has fewer Internet-connected computers in relation to its student population than any other state, with a ratio less than half the national average. Alabama also ranked very low in terms of the percent of schools where at least half the teachers have school-based e-mail addresses. The survey showed that among teachers who report not using software for instruction, 75 percent cite a lack of classroom computers as a reason, while 35 percent cite lack of training. Similarly, among teachers who do not use the Internet, the largest number (69 percent) cite a lack of Internet-connected computers in the classroom. The lack of e-mail access also affects teacher professional development.
Third, teachers depend on adequate funding for library resources and classroom supplies and materials. Their students also must have the textbooks required by the curriculum.
The investment of Foundation Program funds is a key to all of these requirements. Alabama's Foundation Program provides the following instructional support allocations:
These allocations total $770, which is provided to a school with each teacher unit earned under the Foundation Program staffing formulas. The investment of state and local dollars for these purposes in the current year is $36 million, about 1.3 percent of all Foundation Program allocations. Another $39 million (1.4 percent) is spent on textbooks
TABLE 14. Access to Computers for Students and Teachers, 1999 |
|||||||||
Students Per |
Potential |
Percent of Schools |
|||||||
Internet- |
Hours of |
Where at Least 50% of |
|||||||
Connected |
Access |
Teachers Have School- |
|||||||
State |
Computer |
Per Week* |
Rank |
State |
Based E-Mail Addresses |
Rank |
|||
Delaware |
5.8 |
5.2 |
1 |
Alaska |
92% |
1 |
|||
Alaska |
6.0 |
5.0 |
2 |
Nebraska |
91% |
2 |
|||
Nebraska |
7.2 |
4.2 |
3 |
Maine |
86% |
3 |
|||
South Dakota |
7.3 |
4.1 |
4 |
Vermont |
85% |
4 |
|||
North Dakota |
9.1 |
3.3 |
5 |
Hawaii |
84% |
5 |
|||
Missouri |
9.3 |
3.2 |
6 |
North Dakota |
84% |
||||
Iowa |
9.6 |
3.1 |
7 |
Minnesota |
83% |
7 |
|||
Minnesota |
9.6 |
3.1 |
8 |
Oregon |
82% |
8 |
|||
Utah |
10.0 |
3.0 |
9 |
Kentucky |
80% |
9 |
|||
Wyoming |
10.0 |
3.0 |
10 |
Washington |
79% |
10 |
|||
Oregon |
10.1 |
3.0 |
|||||||